This section discusses the importance of resources and analyzes the ability of Black

Canadians to access helpful services. Hosseini Jebeli et al. (2019) found that individuals with

constant access to resources generally have greater opportunities for economic development and

health than individuals who experience barriers in accessing such resources. However, in

comparison to White Canadians, Black Canadians have fewer resources and experience greater

access barriers to services (Smedley et al., 2001).

A Deep Dive into Black Students’ Experiences

One of the prominent barriers that Black individuals experience relates to education.

James and Turner (2017) examined the education system for Black students in the Greater

Toronto Area. The authors reported that educators and other school board staff internalized

discriminatory and prejudiced beliefs that ultimately affect the way in which they interact,

perceive, and grade Black students. In this study, students shared their experiences with the

researchers. One student stated that upon raising a hand to speak, teachers hesitated to address

that student because, as the student states, “teachers couldn’t quiete gauge what I was going to

say”. Another student stated that on the first day of school, the teacher announced an intention to

avoid teaching Black students because of the teacher’s belief that these students would fail the

year. This study supported several other investigations showing biased attitudes about black

students (Glock & Böhmer, 2018; Kumar et al., 2015; Pit-Ten Cate & Glock, 2019).

These instances of educational discrimination often result in the disproportionate

exclusion of Black students. James and Turner (2017) found that 42% of all Black students had

been suspended at least one time. This number represents more than a twofold increase over the

18% of White students and 18% of other racialized students that have incurred a school

suspension, thus highlighting the impact of biases against Black Canadian students. Moreover,

Black Canadian students experienced streaming into programs below their actual skill level, a

practice that reflects the lower expectations that school staff have of Black Canadian students.

These biased perceptions further widen the educational gap between Black Canadians and the

general population of Canada (James & Turner, 2017). For instance, one student expressed that

the basic and applied streams consisted mostly of Black students, a reality reflected by other

studies (Chadha et al., 2020; Maynard, 2017; Mickelson, 2007). This research indicates that

teachers selectively place Black students into lower-achieving streams, thus illustrating their

negative perception of Black students and hence discriminatory attitudes.

Moreover, Black Canadian students that live in neighbourhoods populated mainly by

Black communities face unique barriers. These barriers include impaired access to proper

educational resources, adequate facilities, learning environments, extracurricular activities, and

qualified teachers. Since schools in Black neighborhoods often receive less funding than schools

in White neighbourhoods (Bennett, 2011), students that attend the former schools suffer from

limited educational resources. The lack of funding in these schools significantly impairs the

ability of Black Canadian students to attain academic success as well as reduces their chances of

graduating high school and attending postsecondary education. James and Turner (2017) found

that in comparison to 84% of White students and 87% of racialized students, only 69% of Black

students graduated from high school. However, Statistics Canada (2020b) reported that more

than 94% of Black Canadians stated their objectives to graduate high school and attain a

postsecondary degree, thus highlighting a discrepancy between the goals and reality of Black

students. While 47% of White students and 60% of other racialized students received acceptance

into a post-secondary institution, only 25% of Black students attained acceptance to these

facilities. However, Black students, in comparison to students of other races, received higher

rates of college acceptance. This discrepancy highlights the tendency of educators and

educational administrators to exert systemic discrimination against Black students.

Unveiling in Canadian Healthcare System: Physical and Mental Health

The Canadian healthcare system boasts a reputation as one of the best medical systems in

the world by arguably offering relatively equitable access to physician and hospital services for

Canadian residents (Fante-Coleman et al. 2019; Martin et al. 2018; Rodney & Copeland, 2009).

Despite this perception, the Canadian care system nevertheless contains significant discrepancies

in the availability, accessibility, and quality of health services across the country, especially for

marginalized communities such as Black Canadian populations.

Anderson et al. (2009) found that in comparison to the general population, African

Americans have a much lower likelihood of receiving equitable treatment. Specifically,

healthcare professionals tend to treat other ethnicities more adequately than Black Americans

due to providers’ biases and prejudices. Hoffman et al. (2016) found that healthcare providers

expressed their belief that in comparison to other populations, African Americans tended to feign

pain for the purposes of receiving drugs. This assumption decreased the likelihood of physicians

prescribing pain medication to African Americans, thus potentially overlooking any legitimate

health conditions, and jeopardizing their wellness. Pew Research (2022) found that 56% of

African Americans experienced at least one negative encounter with doctors or other healthcare

providers at some point in their lives. While the negative experience of Black individuals

receives far more documentation in America, this trend still provides valuable insights that may

apply to the Canadian context.

Although a scarcity of research exists about Black Canadians’ encounters in the

healthcare system, Fante-Coleman et al. (2022) examined the experience of Black Canadian

patients. This study represented a novel contribution to the literature as the first investigation that

specifically documented this topic. This article, which explores patient perceptions of attempting

to access care, ultimately problematizes the historical underpinnings of racism in the context of

Canadian healthcare. The authors’ findings highlight alarming similarities between the

experiences of Black individuals in the United States and Canada. Specifically, Fante-Coleman

et al. (2022) found that providers overused the biomedical model while overlooking culturally

sensitive care that addresses the concerns of the Black community, including contextual factors,

cultural needs, and religion. These results indicate respondents’ beliefs that healthcare providers

rarely address the broader social issues and underlying causes of illnesses, such as racism and

generational trauma, failing to comprehend the perspective of Black individuals. Moreover,

patients describe the inability of healthcare providers to relate to patients and their social world,

which often leads to frustration. Participants also reported encountering physicians that

dismissed their concerns and accused them of exaggerating or causing their own pain. Most

respondents experienced negative stereotyping and racism from healthcare providers. For

instance, some physicians believed that babies born to African mothers in Canada had incurred

Ebola and other providers treated participants poorly due to their accent (Fante-Coleman et al.,

2022). Overall, this study found that Black Canadians experienced similar treatment to their

Black American counterparts when accessing the healthcare system.

The lack of cultural safety and inclusion in the healthcare system entails detrimental

consequences to the Black Canadian population. Two studies examined the barriers that Black

Albertans experienced when accessing mental health services in their province (Hoffman et al.,

2016; Salami et al., 2021). The authors reported several impediments to access, including a lack

of cultural safety and inclusion; racism and discrimination; the high cost of mental health

services; and the stigma associated with mental health issues. These barriers to effective care

explain some of the reasons that Black Canadians feel reluctant to access health services. In

particular, the lack of cultural safety and inclusion constitutes a major obstacle. In comparison to

White individuals, Black Canadians report lower levels of healthcare-related trust, satisfaction,

and communication as well as more negative experiences with these services (Ben et al., 2017).

Examining Racial Biases in Legal Systems and the Impact on Sentencing Disparities

In addition to experiencing systemic healthcare inequalities, Black Canadians encounter

entrenched prejudice in the legal system. Rachlinski et al. (2019) examined judges’ unconscious

racial biases and the effect of such biases on court decisions. Using the widely known Implicit

Association Test, the authors reported that White judges, despite their apparent dedication to

impartiality, exhibit the same racial biases as other White professionals. These biases most often

influence decisions about bail amounts and conditions as well as sentence lengths and case

results. This finding emanated from a study in Toronto by Owusu-Bempah (2021), where the

author found that the majority of Black youth felt that the legal system presumed them guilty

until proven innocent in court proceedings. In this investigation, the same judge tried a Black

participant and his White friend for the same charge. Despite having the same lawyers, the Black

participant received a sentence of 90 days plus two years of probation while his White friend

received a sentence of 30 days plus one year of probation, thus indicating inequitable treatment.

Moreover, Owusu-Bempah (2021) interviewed Black lawyers and community workers, finding

that these employees work twice as hard with Black clients. This process involves erasing stigma

and building a positive profile for their client to ensure that the client receives an equitable

sentence from the judge.

Libgober (2019) examined the experience of Black individuals in the United States

seeking a lawyer. This author found that in comparison to White individuals with European

names, Black individuals with African names were only half as likely to receive a response from

a White lawyer regarding the same request for legal representation. These findings suggest that

White lawyers respond to economically relevant signals correlated with race as a means of

maximizing their earnings. Specifically, these lawyers purposely avoid contact with Black clients

to increase their prospective profits due to the perception of Black individuals as low-income

earners, thus indicating stigma and racial bias among lawyers. Therefore, plentiful literature has

unveiled systemic biases against Black individuals in the legal, healthcare, and education